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During an influenza pandemic, transmission of the pandemic virus can be anticipated in the workplace, not only from patients to workers in healthcare settings, but also from customers and coworkers in general work settings. Employers can use a set of occupational safety and health controls referred to as the “hierarchy of controls” to reduce exposures to pandemic influenza in their workplaces. The types of control measures, listed from most effective to least effective, that may be used to protect yourself, your workers and your customers are:• Engineering controls;• Administrative controls;• Work practices; and• Personal protective equipment (PPE).

Most employers will use a combination of these control methods. There are advantages and disadvantages to each type of measure when considering the ease of implementation, effectiveness and cost.

Engineering controls are those that involve making changes to the work environment to reduce work-related hazards. These types of controls are preferred over all others because they make permanent changes that reduce exposure to hazards and do not rely on worker or customer behavior. By reducing a hazard in the workplace, engineering controls can be the most cost-effective solutions for employers to implement.

Examples include:• Installing physical barriers, such as clear plastic sneeze guards.• Installing a drive-through window for customer service.• Using specialized negative-pressure ventilation for aerosol-generating procedures in healthcare settings.

Administrative controls are those that modify workers’ work schedules and tasks in ways that minimize their exposure to workplace hazards.

Examples include:• Developing policies that encourage ill workers to stay at home without fear of any reprisals.• Discontinuing nonessential travel to locations having high prevalence of illness.• Developing practices to minimize face-to-face contact between workers such as extended use of e-mail, websites and teleconferences. Where possible, encourage flexible work arrangements such as telecommuting or flexible work hours to reduce the number of workers who must be at the work site at one time or in one specific location.• Relying on home delivery of goods and services to reduce the number of clients or customers who must visit your workplace.• Developing emergency communications plans. Maintain a forum for answering workers’ concerns. Develop Internet-based communications, if feasible.

Work practices are procedures for safe and proper work that are used to reduce the duration, frequency or intensity of exposure to a hazard. When defining safe work practice controls, it is a good idea to ask your workers for their suggestions, since they have first-hand experience with the tasks. These controls need to be understood and followed by managers, supervisors and workers.

Examples include:• Providing resources and a work environment that promotes personal hygiene. For example, provide tissues, no-touch trash cans, hand soap, hand sanitizer, disinfectants and disposable towels for workers to clean their work surfaces.• Encouraging workers to obtain a seasonal influenza vaccine (this helps to prevent illness from seasonal influenza strains that may continue to circulate).• Providing workers with up-to-date education and training on influenza risk factors, protective behaviors, and instruction on proper behaviors (for example, cough etiquette; avoiding touching eyes, nose and mouth; and proper care of PPE).• Providing education and training materials in an easy to understand format and in the appropriate language and literacy level for all employees.• Developing procedures to minimize contacts between workers and between workers and clients or customers.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is protective gear needed to keep workers safe while performing their jobs. Examples of PPE include respirators (for example, N95), faceshields, goggles and disposable gloves. While engineering and administrative controls and proper work practices are considered to be more effective in minimizing exposure to the influenza virus, the use of PPE may also be indicated during certain exposure situations and during emergencies. The appropriate types of PPE for use during a pandemic will be based on the risk of contracting influenza while working and the availability of PPE. Check the www.pandemicflu. gov website for the latest guidance.

It is important that PPE be:• Selected based upon the hazard to the worker;• Properly fitted and some need to be periodically refitted (e.g., respirators);• Conscientiously and properly worn;• Regularly maintained and replaced in accordance with manufacturer’s specifications;• Properly removed and disposed of to avoid contamination of self, others or the environment; and• If reusable, properly removed, cleaned, disinfected and stored.

If used correctly, PPE can help prevent some exposures; however, they should not take the place of other prevention interventions, such as engineering controls, cough etiquette and hand hygiene (see www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/stopgerms.htm).

For additional information on what employers can do to protect their workers, please refer to OSHA Publication No. 3327, entitled Guidance on Preparing Workplaces for an Influenza Pandemic, which can be accessed at: www.osha.gov. Also consult www.pandemicflu.gov to obtain current and additional detailed information about all aspects of pandemic influenza.

The best strategy to reduce the risk of becoming ill with pandemic influenza is to avoid crowded settings and other situations that increase the risk of exposure to someone who may be infected. If you must be in a crowded setting, minimize your time there. Some basic hygiene and social distancing precautions that can be used in every workplace include the following:• Stay home if you are sick.• Wash your hands frequently with soap and water for 20 seconds or with a hand sanitizer if soap and water are not available.• Avoid touching your nose, mouth and eyes.• Cover your coughs and sneezes with a tissue, or cough and sneeze into your upper sleeve. Dispose of tissues in no-touch trash receptacles.• Wash your hands or use a hand sanitizer after coughing, sneezing, or blowing your nose.• Avoid close contact (within 6 feet) with coworkers and customers.• Avoid shaking hands and always wash your handsafter physical contact with others.• If wearing gloves, always wash your hands after removing them.• Keep frequently touched common surfaces (for example, telephones, computer equipment, etc.) clean.• Try not to use other workers’ phones, desks, offices, or other work tools and equipment.• Minimize group meetings; use e-mails, phones and text messaging. If meetings are unavoidable, avoid close contact (within 6 feet) with others and ensure that the meeting room is properly ventilated.• Limit unnecessary visitors to the workplace.• Maintain a healthy lifestyle; attention to rest, diet, exercise and relaxation helps maintain physical and emotional health. For more information, see Guidance on Preparing Work-places for an Influenza Pandemic, OSHA Publication No.

3327, which can be accessed at www.osha.gov. 

Because of the size and weight of pallets, important safety factors have to be considered at all times:

1. Pay attention to any loose components in the pallet rack system, and take the time to report any damage in the pallet rack frame; such frame damage could cause the pallets to fall.
2. It is the owner’s legal responsibility to communicate this important warning to all who are around storage racks:“Never climb on racks during or after assembly. Storage racks are not designed to be stepped on or climbed on. A slip or fall may result in serious injury.”It is especially important to have highly visible warning signs if the pallet rack system is used in retail environments, such as wholesale centers, where the public is present.
3. Use only quality pallets that are not damaged. To save money, or perhaps from neglectful management, some warehouses use pallets until they become faulty and dangerous. Regular inspection of pallets for broken or fractured planks or stringers, protruding nails, and missing support blocks is essential. Damaged pallets can cause loading and unloading problems; for example, loose stringers can get hung up on the pallet racks, which can cause loads to fall from high positions. Also, faulty pallets can cause obstruction problems in flow systems by jamming certain pallet rack designs.
4. Always ensure that the proper motorized equipment is being used for the application.
5. Do not obstruct the end of aisles by staging pallets in these areas. Doing so can cause severe and potentially fatal injuries and accidents.
6. Never overload or exceed the recommended load specifications for a racking system. Overloading may cause a catastrophic failure of your storage rack system.
7. Rack Audits (safety checks)should be performed on a regular basis by a qualified inspector familiar with RMI design and safety standards to make sure all aspects of system are up to 100% operationally safety.

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A cantilever is a beam supported on only one end. The beam carries the load to the support where it is resisted by moment and shear stress. Cantilever construction allows for overhanging structures without external bracing. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs.

This is in contrast to a simply supported beam such as those found in a post and lintel system. A simply supported beam is supported at both ends with loads applied between the supports.

Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies (see corbel). In cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridgein Scotland is a famous example of a cantilever truss bridge.

Temporary cantilevers are often used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the completed structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built (e.g., over a busy roadway or river, or in a deep valley). So some truss arch bridges (see Navajo Bridge) are built from each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages. Many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support.

In industrial applications, mezzanine floor systems are semi-permanent floor systems typically installed within buildings, built between two permanent original stories. These structures are usually free standing and in most cases can be dismantled and relocated. Commercially sold mezzanine structures are generally constructed of three main materials; steel, aluminum, and fiberglass. The decking or flooring of a mezzanine will vary by application but is generally composed of b-deck underlayment and wood product finished floor or a heavy duty steel, aluminum or fiberglass grating.

The mezzanine is often used in shops and similar spaces for storage of tools or materials. The high roof of the shop is ideal for a mezzanine, and offices can be put either below or above it. Mezzanines are frequently used in industrial operations such as warehousing, distribution or manufacturing. These facilities have high ceilings, allowing unused space to be utilized within the vertical cube. Industrial mezzanine structures are typically either structural, roll formed, rack-supported, or shelf-supported, allowing high density storage within the mezzanine structure.

Drive-in and Drive-through (sometimes spelled Drive-thru) are storage rack configurations that allow the forklift to drive directly into the lane of stacked rows (called a bay). The difference between a drive-in and a drive-thru pallet rack system is simply whether the bays have an entry at only one end, or at both ends. Drive-in rack systems use a common entry and exit, while drive-thru systems have entry points at either end of the bay. Because a drive-in racking system has only one entrance, it uses what is called a LIFO (last in, first out) storage method. With only one entrance, the last pallet put into a row is necessarily the first one to be taken out. A drive-thru storage system, with two different entry points, can also use a FIFO (first in, first out) storage method. With a FIFO system, pallets are loaded in one end and are pushed back to the other end, where they are then at the front of the row on the opposite side. The first pallet put into such a row is the first one taken out at the other end. This system is advantageous for material with an expiration date or wherever shelf life is a major concern.

Selective Pallet rack, also referred to as “pallet racking,” is a material handling storage aid system designed to store materials on pallets (or “skids”). Although there are many varieties of pallet rack, all types allow for the storage of palletized materials in horizontal rows with multiple levels. All types of pallet rack create some level of increase storage density with the least dense being the least expensive and cost increasing with storage denisity. Selective rack is the least dense at a cost of about $50-$70 per pallet position up to gravity flow pallet rack which can cost $250 -$400 per pallet position. Forklift trucks are usually an integral part of any pallet rack system as they are usually required to place the loaded pallets onto the racks for storage. Pallet racks are an essential and ubiquitous element in most modern warehouses, manufacturing facilities, retail centers, and other storage and distribution facilities.

Selective pallet rack is the most common pallet racking system in use today. Selective pallet racks typically come in one of two configurations: a roll formed, or clip-in configuration, and a structural bolt-together configuration. Roll formedselective rack is most commonly manufactured in a “teardrop” style. The nickname “teardrop” comes from the fact that the holes on the column of the upright are shaped like a teardrop. Pallets then rest on the horizontal load beams that are held in place by mounting clips. Because the clips on teardrop configurations can be quickly moved, the shelves can be easily adjusted to different heights to accommodate various load sizes. This is convenient for a warehouse that needs to store a wide variety of product sizes. Structural pallet rack systems are very similar to roll formed pallet rack systems except the horizontal load beams are attached to the uprights with bolts and have much greater weight-bearing capacity. Also, structural pallet racking can be designed into the structure of the building itself, so that the upright columns are simultaneously used to support the roof of the storage facility, in which case the structural pallet rack uprights replace the storage building’s vertical support I-beams. This system is a rack supported building. Very Narrow Aisle(VNA) is the use of selective pallet racking in a tighter configuration to provide maximum space utilization within a storage facility. These systems typically operate in conjunction with wire-guided or rail-guided reach-truck systems. A wire-guided system consists of a wire embedded in the concrete floor that provides tracking for the reach-truck. A rail-guided system consists of angle iron bolted to the floor down the length of each row. Typically, the angle iron is 4” by 3” and ¼” - ⅜” inches thick. Another advantage of selective pallet rack systems is the easy accessibility they provide to all products at all times. Such accessibility is important if the inventory is rapidly depleted and restocked (called quick turnover). A selective pallet rack system is commonly used in a “big-box” distribution application, as well as in retail store inventory rooms, cold storage applications, wholesale stores, etc.  

Common components of selective rack include the following:

1. Load beams (also called step beams or box beams).
   • Most Step Beams are roll formed members with a 1⅝” step along the top inside edge. This step is used to hold any load support components such as pallet supports or wire decks.
   • Box Beams have no inset step, instead have four flat sides like a box. All load beams typically mount onto an upright frame column with integral rivets or hooks. Some systems utilize an extra clip or bolt to lock the beam to the upright.
   • Structural Beams are hot formed structural C shapes with connecting clips at either end. Structural load beams are generally used with structural uprights but can be used with standard roll formed uprights. Structural load beams offer heavier weight capacities than step beams or box beams.
2. Upright Frames (also called upright columns or uprights) vary in size and design depending on load requirements, and styles. The most common upright column is produced by roll forming flat coil stock steel into a modified “C” shape with returns. This style is often referred to as open-back roll-formed columns. Holes or slots are punched during manufacturing up and down the column at standard intervals so that the load beams can be mounted into the upright columns. Upright frames can also be constructed utilizing structural C shapes for columns. Structural uprights have an increased weight capacity over roll formed uprights.
3. Diagonal Braces and Horizontal Braces, commonly referred to as upright frame lacing is usually welded between two upright columns to form selective upright frames. The lacing may be bolted to the columns in some cases.
4. Pallet Supports are roll formed channels that are placed front to back between the load beams to support pallets.
5. Wire Decking is commonly used as a safety measure on selective pallet rack to prevent pallets or the products stored on them from falling through the rack structure. Wire mesh decking comes in various thicknesses and mesh dimensions. Wire mesh construction also allows for easy identification of shelf contents and prevents dirt and other debris from accumulating on the shelves because of the holes in the mesh. Most wire mesh decking has U-shaped channel supports, also known as struts, to support the load. With this waterfall decking, the wire mesh extends across the top and down the front of the beam to provide more support, and is more desirable in the marketplace. Reverse waterfall decking can provide containment of a loose product to prevent the product from falling behind the rack system. Lay-in decking rests inside the step of the beam, and wire mesh does not waterfall over the beam. Some types of decking are manufactured with solid metal instead of wire mesh. Even though the solid decking provides a greater distributed weight capacity, it is discouraged by fire inspectors because sprinkler systems cannot spray through the shelves to levels below.
6. Footplates, also known as footpads or baseplates, are at the base of columns and serve as anchors to give the rack more stability: anchor bolts are inserted through the baseplate’s holes to attach the column to the concrete floor. Footplates are made of thicker steel and in some geographic locations, they must be of a certain size and seismic rating. Footpads increase the pallet rack’s overall stability and weight-bearing capacity.
7. Shims are used when the uprights are resting on uneven floors; the shims, equal in size to the base of the uprights, are installed beneath the uprights to level the rack.
8. Row spacers are sometimes used if uprights are arranged in back-to-back rows; the spacers are mounted between adjacent columns to ensure that the rows are kept straight and to give the pallet racks even more strength and steadiness.
9. Wall ties may be used for further support if the uprights are arranged in a row along a wall.
10. Column protectors, also known as post protectors, are protective shields that can be installed around the base of an upright to minimize damage where forklifts might hit the upright. Damage to the base of a column can weaken the entire frame and could cause it to collapse. Column protectors are made of various materials such as polyethylene, ductile iron casting, and other durable materials.
11. Guard rails are installed to increase protection for upright columns and for human safety when platforms or steps are attached to pallet racks.

Other Common Types of Pallet Rack

Many types of pallet storage racks are available with different designs to fulfill specific functions or create specific advantages. When deciding on the type of pallet rack to use, several basic considerations have to be taken into account: 

• Desired storage density
• Floor space and building height
• Placement of building doors and columns
• Inventory accessibility
• Inventory rotation
• Item/load size and weight
• Optimal storage design
• Cost of materials and installation

Some of the most common types of pallet rack systems used include:

1. Drive-in and Drive-through (sometimes spelled Drive-thru) are storage rack configurations that allow the forklift to drive directly into the lane of stacked rows (called a bay). The difference between a drive-in and a drive-thru pallet rack system is simply whether the bays have an entry at only one end, or at both ends. Drive-in rack systems use a common entry and exit, while drive-thru systems have entry points at either end of the bay. Because a drive-in racking system has only one entrance, it uses what is called a LIFO (last in, first out) storage method. With only one entrance, the last pallet put into a row is necessarily the first one to be taken out. A drive-thru storage system, with two different entry points, can also use a FIFO (first in, first out) storage method. With a FIFO system, pallets are loaded in one end and are pushed back to the other end, where they are then at the front of the row on the opposite side. The first pallet put into such a row is the first one taken out at the other end. This system is advantageous for material with an expiration date or wherever shelf life is a major concern.
2. Push-back pallet rack systems are designed around the principle of organizing space by depth rather than width. This depth arrangement greatly reduces aisle space and increases storage density. In this configuration, each bay can be up to six pallets deep; each pallet stored on wheeled carts that fit onto rails. The rails are slightly angled toward the load/unload side of the rack in order to take advantage of gravity, saving enormous amounts of energy for moving heavy pallets. When a forklift sets the pallet onto the cart, it drives forward and causes the pallet to bump the next pallet, causing the entire row of pallets to roll backwards. When removing a pallet from the front position the remaining pallets immediately stage themselves forward so that the next available pallet can be accessed. Push back rack is a LIFO (last in, first out) storage system.
3. Pallet Flow systems are high density pallet storage systems that utilize depth to increase capacity. This system uses a slightly inclined rail with rollers that allow pallets to move easily along the sloped plane. These systems are also called gravity flow or dynamic flow systems. The pallet flow system often has complex motion and braking systems to control the speed of the moving pallet. Pallet Flow racking systems are either a FIFO (first in, first out) or a LIFO (last in, first out) storage system. If the system is loaded from the back and unloaded from the front, its FIFO; if the system is loaded and unloaded from the front its a LIFO system.

Some disadvantages of high density pallet storage systems are; less access to all stock at any given moment (although if the stored product is all the same, it should not matter), and the expense of such systems. Selective pallet rack systems are considerably less expensive per pallet position than their higher density counterparts. In most medium to large facilities, however, high density pallet rack systems are essential, since they provide the efficiency of time and high cost facility space is better optimized.